History of China
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Perspective
The history of China is that of one of the world’s oldest civilizations and one of its cradles of civilization. Neolithic civilizations arose at various centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River as early as 8,000 years ago. Written records such as the Book of Documents mention and describe a Xia dynasty (2070–1600 BCE) that ruled in the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese civilization. These Neolithic civilizations arose millennia before the Shang, China’s first historical dynasty.
The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) succeeded the Shang, and used the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to support their rule. But the Zhou government weakened from internal pressures and barbarian predations in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually disintegrated into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. As a result, these states fought with one another throughout the following Warring States period, and much of traditional Chinese culture first developed during those troubled times.
In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and established himself as Huangdi or “emperor” of the Qin. From this came the beginnings of China’s empire. However, his oppressive rule was replaced by the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). The Han and the dynasties that followed governed in ways that enabled the emperor to rule China’s enormous territories directly. In consequence, for the more than 2,000 years leading up to the advent of the Chinese republic in 1912, government was handled by a special elite of scholar-officials, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy. They were carefully selected through rigorous examinations that were available to all to take.
Between periods of political unity and peace, there were times of war and failed statehood. As one example among many, the Chinese Civil War the 20th century raged for more than 20 years before China regained its footing in 1949. This was complicated by the threat from the “barbarians from beyond the Wall”, though these steppe peoples were assimilated into the mainstream Chinese culture and population. Between eras of fractured kingdoms and warlords, Chinese dynasties absorbed and ruled parts or all of China as far away as Xinjiang, Tibet and Inner Mongolia. Traditional culture, in part influenced by such cultural assimilation and foreign contact, underpins the modern culture of China.
China’s last dynasty, the Qing (1644–1912), was replaced by the Republic of China (ROC) in 1912, and then by the Peoples’ Republic of China (PRC) under Mao Zedong in 1949. With this, the government of the Republic of China fled to Taiwan in 1949, and since then, both the PRC and the ROC claim to be the sole legitimate government of China. This has resulted in an ongoing dispute even after the United Nations recognized the PRC as China’s sole government in 1971. Hong Kong and Macau became sovereign Chinese territories in 1997 and 1999, respectively.
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Index
China Index | Ancient China: Society • Origins • Environment • Religion | Xia Dynasty: Society • Origins • Founding Myths | Shang Dynasty: Society • Culture • Magic • Science and Technology • Religion • Power | Zhou Dynasty: Society • Culture • Philosophy • Yang Zhu • Confucius: Background • Concerns • Politics • Confucianism: Confucian Classics • Morality • The Way of the Higher Man • Legacy • Legalism • Daoism • Mencius: Background • Beliefs • Politics • Mo-Tzu • Xunzi • Zhuangzi | Power • Rise • Feudal States • Warring States Era • Decline • Economy | Qin Dynasty • Power • Lord Shang • King Zheng • Qin Shi Huangdi Decline | Han Dynasty: Society • Culture • Philosophy • Scholarship • Science and Technology • Buddhism • Power • Former Han Dynasty • Gaozu • Han Wudi • Wang Mang • Later Han Dynasty • Decline | Economy | Jin and Northern Wei Dynasties | Sui Dynasty | T’ang Dynasty: Society • Culture • Literature • Scholarship • Sculpture • Science and Technology | Buddhism • Power • Xuanzong • Decline • Economy | Song Dynasty: Society • Culture • Science and Technology • Power • Economy • Trade | Mongol Empire: Society • Power • Governance • Genghis Khan • Kublai Khan • Fragmentation of the Empire • Turkic Empire • Economy | Yuan Dynasty: Society • Culture • Power • Economy | Ming Dynasty: Society • Culture • Art • Literature • Scholarship • Religion • Power • Hongwu • Yongle • Expansion • Naval Expeditions • Decline • Economy | Qing Dynasty: Society • Culture • Power • Manchus • Qianlong • Kangxi • Decline • The West • Opium Wars • Revolt • Cixi • Loss of Territory • Sino-Japanese War • Economy: Trade | Modern China: Society • Culture • Power • Revolution of 1911 • Cultural Movements • Political Movements • May Fourth Movement • Republic of China: Governance • Civil War • Japan • Manchukuo • War with Japan • Defeat of Japan • Chinese Communist Party: Consolidation • Rise • Industrialization • Mao Zedong • Great Leap Forward • Cultural Revolution • Zhou Enlai • Deng Xiaoping • Economy • Hong Kong • Taiwan
China: Index
Ancient China
Ancient China
Society
Society: Origins
Society: Environment
Religion
Xia Dynasty
Xia Dynasty: Index
Society
Society: Origins
Society: Founding Myths
Shang Dynasty
Shang Dynasty: Index
Society
Culture
Magic
Science and Technology
Written Language
Religion
Power
Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty: Index
Society
Culture
Philosophy
Yang Zhu
Confucius
Confucius: Background
Concerns
Politics
Confucianism: Index
Confucian Classics
Morality
The Way of the Higher Man
Legacy
Legalism
Daoism
Mencius
Background
Beliefs
Politics
Mo-tzu
Xun-tzu
Zhuang-tzu
Zhou Dynasty: Power
Rise
Feudal States
Warring States Era
Decline
Economy
Qin Dynasty
Qin Dynasty: Index
Power
Qin Shihuangdi
Lord Shang
King Zheng
Decline
Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty: Index
Society
Culture
Philosophy
Scholarship
Science and Technology
Buddhism
Power
Former Han Dynasty
Gao-tzu
Han Wudi
Wang Mang
Later Han Dynasty
Decline
Economy
Jin and Northern Wei Dynasties
Jin and Northern Wei Dynasties
Sui Dynasty
Sui Dynasty
T’ang Dynasty
T’ang Dynasty: Index
Society
Culture
Literature
Scholarship
Science and Technology
Sculpture
Buddhism
Power
Xuanzong
Decline
Economy
Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty: Index
Society
Culture
Science and Technology
Power
Economy
Trade
Mongol Empire
Mongol Empire
Society
Power
Governance
Genghis Khan
Kublai Khan
Fragmentation of the Empire
Turkic Empire
Economy
Yuan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty: Index
Society
Culture
Power
Economy
Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty: Index
Society
Culture
Art
Literature
Scholarship
Religion
Power
Hongwu
Yongle
Yongle: Expansion
Decline
Economy
Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty: Index
Society
Culture
Power
Manchus
Qianlong
Kangxi
Decline
The West
Opium Wars
Revolt
Cixi
Loss of Territory
Sino-Japanese War
Economy
Trade
Modern China
Modern China: Index
Society
Culture
Power
Power: Revolution of 1911
Revolution of 1911: Cultural Movements
Revolution of 1911: Political Movements
Political Movements: May Fourth Movement
Power: Republic of China
Republic of China: Governance
Power: Civil War
Civil War: Japan
Japan: Manchukuo
Japan: War
War: Defeat of Japan
Power: Chinese Communist Party
Chinese Communist Party: Consolidation
Chinese Communist Party: Rise
Chinese Communist Party: Industrialization
Power: Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong: Great Leap Forward
Mao Zedong: Cultural Revolution
Power: Zhou Enlai
Power: Deng Xiaoping
Economy
Hong Kong
Taiwan